Endocrine

Chronic GH excess: causes, presentation, diagnosis with IGF-1 and GH suppression, surgery, medicines, radiation and screening.

How to work up an adrenal mass found by chance: imaging, hormones, and when to operate.

How the adrenal glands fail, how the patient looks, how to test, and how to treat adrenal crisis and lifelong replacement safely.

Every glucose-lowering drug class: mechanism, HbA1c, weight and hypo risk, plus insulin regimens, comorbidity-based selection and low-resource care.

How long-standing high blood glucose damages the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, vessels and feet, and how to screen for and reduce that risk.

Autosomal recessive enzyme defects that block cortisol synthesis, leading to androgen excess and, in severe forms, salt-wasting crises.

Excess cortisol from any cause: how it produces the Cushingoid phenotype, how to screen and find the source, and how to treat it.

AVP deficiency or resistance: how central and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus cause polyuria and hypernatraemia, how to diagnose them, and how to treat them.

Monitoring glucose and delivering insulin: HbA1c, blood glucose meters, CGM metrics and time in range, insulin pumps and automated insulin delivery.

Acute hyperglycaemic emergencies: definitions, diagnostic criteria, precipitants, pathophysiology, treatment, monitoring and prevention.

How systemic glucocorticoids work, how their doses are equated, and how to taper, stress-dose and monitor them safely.

Overactive parathyroid glands: causes, stones and bones, tests that separate it from mimics, and treatment from parathyroid surgery to dialysis care.

Hyperprolactinaemia and prolactinoma: causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, from dopamine biology to dopamine agonists, surgery, and pregnancy.

Thyroid hormone excess: how it differs from thyrotoxicosis, its causes, presentation, tests, treatment, storm and pregnancy.

How low glucose presents, what causes it with and without diabetes, how fasting hypoglycaemia is evaluated, and how insulinoma is diagnosed and treated.

How low sex-steroid output delays puberty, how to separate testicular from pituitary failure, and how testosterone and oestrogen are used

Partial or complete failure of the pituitary gland to secrete one or more hormones: causes, diagnosis and replacement.

Deficient thyroid hormone: its causes, how it presents, how we diagnose it, how we treat it, and myxoedema coma.

Metabolic syndrome: central adiposity, insulin resistance, dysglycaemia, dyslipidaemia and hypertension; criteria, causes, risks and care.

MEN1 (menin), MEN2A and 2B (RET) and MEN4 (CDKN1B): tumour spectra, inheritance, genetic testing, surveillance, RET-risk thyroidectomy and management.

Neuroendocrine tumours (NETs): classification, carcinoid syndrome, diagnosis, imaging, and somatostatin analogue therapy.

Definitions, staged assessment, lifestyle, pharmacotherapy including GLP-1 medicines, bariatric surgery, complications, special groups and low-resource care.

Osteoporosis: low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration that lead to fragility fractures; risk factors, screening, diagnosis, and treatment.

Paget disease of bone: focal disordered bone remodelling, phases, complications, diagnosis with alkaline phosphatase and imaging, and bisphosphonate treatment.

Catecholamine-secreting tumours of the adrenal medulla and paraganglia: genetics, diagnosis, preoperative blockade, surgery and lifelong follow-up.

Incidentally found pituitary lesions and the bleed or infarct called pituitary apoplexy: definition, imaging, hormone work-up, visual fields, emergency.

Mass effect, visual fields, hypopituitarism, non-functioning pituitary adenoma surgery, craniopharyngioma, Rathke cyst and meningioma.

How excess aldosterone causes hypertension: causes, who to screen, aldosterone-to-renin ratio, confirmatory tests, subtype imaging and treatment.

Why SIADH retains water, its many causes, how it is diagnosed, how severity guides treatment, and how to avoid osmotic demyelination.

Thyroid disease in pregnancy: trimester TSH ranges, drug choices, postpartum thyroiditis, and treatment of Graves orbitopathy.

How thyroid testing works: the HPT axis, interpreting TSH, free T4 and free T3, antibodies, imaging, drugs and practice in low-resource settings.

Thyroid nodules and cancer: risk, ultrasound and TI-RADS, TSH and scans, FNA and Bethesda, the main cancer types, treatment and follow-up.

Thyroiditis: inflammation of the thyroid gland in its several forms, with transient thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, tests and treatment.

Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells: how type 1 diabetes shows, how it is diagnosed and staged, and how to manage and monitor it.

A chronic metabolic disease of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency: definition, diagnosis, targets and stepwise management.

Vitamin D deficiency: how it causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, how to recognise, test and treat.

Obesity as a chronic disease: BMI classes, complications, medical therapy including GLP-1 receptor agonists, bariatric surgery indications and follow-up.

How neck and adrenal endocrine surgery is planned, performed and recovered from, with indications, preparation, technique and complications.

Vitamin deficiencies in the emergency department: causes, deficiency syndromes, diagnosis, treatment, refeeding, and prevention.

Epilepsy and antiepileptic choice, thyroid disease and TSH targets, asthma control, and lupus with antiphospholipid syndrome in pregnancy.

Gestational and pregestational diabetes in pregnancy: screening, targets, treatment, monitoring, fetal growth, delivery timing and postpartum follow-up.

21-hydroxylase deficiency in 46,XX: virilisation, salt wasting, diagnosis, glucocorticoid therapy.

How to score hirsutism, test for androgen excess, find the cause, and treat safely.

What polycystic ovary syndrome is, how it is diagnosed with the 2003 Rotterdam criteria as refined in 2023, and its evidence-based management from lifestyle.

Turner syndrome (45,X and mosaics): features, cardiac and renal associations, growth hormone, oestrogen, fertility; plus non-Turner gonadal dysgenesis.

How congenital hypothyroidism is found at the newborn heel-prick screen, confirmed, and treated with levothyroxine to protect brain development

DSDs and ambiguous genitalia: classification, stepwise work-up, CAH cross-check, androgen insensitivity, karyotype and hormone evaluation, and long-term care.

Inherited metabolic disorders in children: sick newborn approach, PKU, galactosaemia, MSUD, urea cycle and storage diseases.

How neonatal hypoglycaemia is defined, screened, treated and prevented, with guideline thresholds. Includes infants of diabetic mothers.

Normal puberty and its disorders in children: timing, Tanner staging, precocious and delayed puberty, evaluation, treatment and adolescent gynaecomastia.

Approach to short stature in children: normal growth variants, red flags, causes, bone-age-based evaluation, and treatment of growth hormone deficiency and.

Type 1 diabetes in children: how it presents, a full protocol for diabetic ketoacidosis including cerebral oedema, and long-term care.