Renal and urinary

Stepwise acid-base interpretation: pH, primary process, compensation, anion gap, osmolar gap, renal tubular acidosis and mixed disorders.

Acute inflammation of kidney tubules and interstitium, usually drug-related: causes, urine sediment, steroids, and analgesic nephropathy.

Rapid loss of kidney function: KDIGO definition and staging, causes, urinary indices, assessment, complications, and management.

Sudden inability to void: causes, catheterisation, post-obstructive diuresis and urethral stricture.

Benign, non-cancerous growth in the transition zone of the prostate that blocks urine flow; symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and when surgery is needed.

Benign kidney tumours, cysts and imaging categories, plus upper tract urothelial carcinoma from presentation through nephroureterectomy and adjuvant therapy.

Bladder cancer: painless visible haematuria, cystoscopy and TURBT, with stage-based care from intravesical BCG to cystectomy and immunotherapy.

Chronic kidney disease: staging by eGFR and albuminuria, causes, complications, progression, and treatment.

Contrast-associated and drug- or pigment-induced acute tubular injury: mechanisms, risk stratification, prevention and management.

Polyuria from central and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: causes, water-deprivation testing, and management, with cross-checks to endocrinology and.

Dialysis and kidney transplantation: indications, modalities, access, complications, transplant eligibility, immunosuppression and rejection.

Classes of diuretics, their sites and mechanisms in the nephron, indications, dosing, adverse effects, resistance and how to choose.

Why erections fail, how to find the cause and how to treat it: physiology, risk factors, tests, drug and device therapy, surgery and low-resource care.

Adult fluid and electrolyte therapy: assessing volume status, resuscitation and maintenance IV fluids, crystalloid choice, correcting common disorders.

Renal, ureteric, bladder, urethral and penile injuries and ischaemic priapism: how they present, how to assess them, and the first steps in management.

A thrombotic microangiopathy pattern: STEC-associated and complement-mediated atypical HUS, TTP contrast, diagnosis, and treatment.

Obstruction anywhere from kidney tubules to urethra: why it swells the kidney, symptoms, tests by level, how to relieve it, and when it is an emergency.

What makes blood calcium rise, how it harms kidneys, bones and brain, and how to bring it down safely.

Elevated serum potassium: why it matters, how it changes the ECG, and how to stabilise and remove it.

How a serum sodium above 145 mmol/L means a water deficit, how to find why it happened, and how to correct it without causing cerebral oedema.

Low blood calcium: causes, clinical features, ECG changes, diagnosis and treatment, including low-resource settings.

Low serum potassium: causes, assessment with urine potassium and acid-base status, ECG changes, and safe replacement.

Low and high serum magnesium: causes, effects, refractory hypokalaemia and hypocalcaemia, and treatment.

Low serum sodium: how to find the cause, judge severity, and correct it safely.

Low and high serum phosphate, hypophosphataemia and CKD-mineral and bone disorder: causes, effects, vitamin D, PTH and phosphate binders.

Causes, evaluation and treatment of male infertility, varicocele and hypogonadism, with semen analysis standards and testosterone thresholds.

Blood and protein in the urine with pressure and swelling: what nephritic syndrome is, its glomerular causes, and how it is investigated and treated.

How kidney stones form, present and are treated: types, diagnosis, pain relief, drainage, surgery, and prevention.

Heavy proteinuria, low albumin, swelling and high lipids: what nephrotic syndrome is, why each feature happens, its causes, and how it is treated.

Penile and urethral cancer: risk factors, HPV and phimosis, premalignant lesions, staging, organ-sparing surgery, nodal and systemic management.

Autosomal dominant and recessive polycystic kidney disease: cyst growth, complications, diagnosis, blood pressure control, tolvaptan, and low-resource care.

How prostate cancer is detected, staged and treated, from PSA and MRI to active surveillance, surgery, radiotherapy, hormones and advanced disease.

Acute and chronic bacterial prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome: definitions, diagnosis, treatment and relation to UTI.

Clear cell and other renal cell cancers, from risk and pathology to staging, surgery and systemic therapy, plus a practical approach to haematuria.

Renal artery stenosis from atherosclerotic and fibromuscular disease: how it causes hypertension, flash pulmonary oedema and ACE inhibitor acute kidney.

Approach to scrotal swelling, testicular torsion and epididymitis: causes, red flags, examination, tests, treatment and low-resource care.

Testicular cancer in young men: types, tumour markers, staging, orchidectomy, chemotherapy and cure.

Stress, urgency, overflow, functional and mixed urinary incontinence, with evaluation, treatment and bladder pain syndrome.

Definitions, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections: cystitis, pyelonephritis, asymptomatic bacteriuria and complicated and recurrent forms.

Maintenance and replacement fluids, balanced crystalloids, fluid shifts after surgery, ileus, and enteral versus parenteral nutrition in surgical patients.

Organ transplantation: principles and complications

A combined guide to the urological emergencies a medical student must recognise: testicular torsion, epididymitis, Fournier gangrene, priapism.

Urethral and suprapubic catheters, transurethral prostate surgery and TURP syndrome, cystoscopy, ureteric stents, nephrectomy and cystectomy with urinary.

Primary to quaternary blast injury, blast lung, crush syndrome, rhabdomyolysis, tourniquets, and field-to-hospital management.

Renal, ureteric, bladder, urethral, penile and testicular trauma: grading, diagnosis and management.

Salicylate, lithium and iron poisoning: recognition, mixed acid-base disorders, phases and treatments from alkalinisation to deferoxamine and dialysis.

Methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning: toxic metabolites, anion and osmolar gaps, visual and renal injury, fomepizole (or ethanol), and haemodialysis.

How urinary infection changes in pregnancy: screening for asymptomatic bacteriuria, cystitis and pyelonephritis, safe antibiotics, risks and complications.

Prolapse and urinary incontinence in women: POP-Q grading, incontinence types, DIAPPERS, management, NICE NG123, ACOG, EAU.

An undescended testis: why it matters, how to examine a boy, and when and how to bring it down.

Assessment, ORS, maintenance IV fluids and correction of hyponatraemic or hypernatraemic dehydration and shock in children.

How bedwetting is classified, why it happens, how to assess it, and how alarms, desmopressin and daytime urotherapy are used, with red flags.

How IgA vasculitis (Henoch-Schonlein purpura) presents in children, threatens the kidneys, and resolves; and how post-streptococcal nephritis and HUS differ.

How urine refluxes from bladder to kidney, how urinary infections present by age, how imaging finds reflux and scars, and how VUR is managed.

The commonest childhood kidney cancer: a renal mass in the 2 to 5 year old, its genetics, syndromes, treatment and outlook.