Internal medicine

How to recognise, risk-stratify and treat inflammation of the pericardium, and tell it apart from a heart attack.

How aspirin, P2Y12 inhibitors, heparins, warfarin and DOACs prevent and treat clots, with dosing, reversal, durations and combinations across ACS, AF, VTE.

How aortic aneurysms form, who to screen, when to repair, and how to recognise and manage rupture.

A tear in the aortic wall: recognising it fast, controlling aortic wall stress, and choosing emergency surgery or TEVAR.

The patient with a fast heart rate or palpitations: red flags, history, ECG, the unstable-patient rule, and the stable pathway by QRS width and regularity.

How atherosclerotic plaque forms and ruptures, and how cardiovascular risk is assessed with SCORE2, PREVENT and pooled cohort equations.

Atrial fibrillation and flutter: types, causes, ECG, emergency cardioversion, rate and rhythm control, ablation, and stroke prevention with CHA2DS2-VASc.

A common benign heart tumour: how it blocks, embolises and inflames, how echocardiography finds it, and why it is removed urgently.

Slow heart rhythms and conduction block: sinus node disease, first- to third-degree AV block, emergency treatment and pacemaker indications.

How bundle branch blocks and fascicular blocks arise, how to read them, and what they mean for ischaemia, syncope, pacing and resynchronisation.

Recognition of cardiac arrest, high-quality CPR, adult ALS algorithms, drugs, reversible causes and post-arrest care.

Choosing and interpreting cardiac imaging and stress tests: echocardiography, exercise ECG, stress echo, nuclear MPI, coronary CT and cardiac MRI.

How to examine the heart at the bedside: hands, pulses, blood pressure, JVP, precordium, heart sounds, murmurs and oedema, and what each sign means.

Fluid or blood around the heart raises pressure until the chambers cannot fill. Recognise tamponade, read the echo and drain before shock kills.

A syndrome of low cardiac output and tissue hypoperfusion from cardiac dysfunction, its stages, inotropes and vasopressors, and mechanical circulatory support.

Carotid artery narrowing as a cause of TIA and stroke: how to grade it, who benefits from endarterectomy or stenting, and how to treat the plaque.

What chronic coronary syndrome is, how stable angina arises, how to confirm it, and how to manage it over the long term.

Congenital heart disease that survives into adult life: common lesions, late complications, investigation and management in adults.

Stiff pericardium causing diastolic heart failure: signs, echo and catheter findings, management, and how to separate it from restriction and tamponade

Deep vein thrombosis: Virchow's triad, risk factors, diagnosis with Wells and D-dimer, imaging, anticoagulation dosing and duration, complications.

Left ventricular dilation with systolic dysfunction not explained by load or coronary disease: causes, tests, family screening, and HFrEF-based treatment.

How lipoproteins drive atherosclerosis, how to estimate cardiovascular risk, and how to lower LDL-C to guideline targets with lifestyle and drug therapy.

What the 12-lead ECG records and a systematic way to read it: rate, rhythm, axis, intervals, ischaemia, chamber enlargement, artefacts and who needs one.

Essential hypertension: definitions and BP thresholds by guideline, measurement, risk, and treatment from lifestyle to resistant hypertension.

Heart failure: definition, classification by ejection fraction, stage and NYHA class, causes, diagnosis, four-pillar drug therapy, devices, acute care.

A severe rise in blood pressure with organ damage is a hypertensive emergency; a severe rise without it is not. How to recognise, assess and treat each.

A thick, stiff heart muscle that can obstruct outflow, cause breathlessness and fainting, and cause sudden death — and how treatment changes the outlook.

Brugada syndrome, CPVT and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy: how they are found, how families are screened, and how athletes stay safe.

Inherited and acquired long QT syndrome: repolarisation, QTc measurement, genotypes, torsades de pointes, diagnosis, beta-blockers, ICD, sport and pregnancy.

Chronic swelling from lymphatic failure: recognition, staging and lifelong management of primary and secondary lymphoedema.

MINOCA, Takotsubo and SCAD: definitions, mechanisms, diagnosis, imaging and management of myocardial infarction without obstructive coronary disease and.

Inflammation of the heart muscle: viral and immune causes, how cardiac MRI diagnoses it, management, and its link to dilated cardiomyopathy.

How pacemakers, ICDs and CRT work, their pacing codes and indications, shocks, follow-up, and safe care in MRI and surgery.

Risk indices, functional capacity, testing and cardiac drugs around non-cardiac surgery: a current evidence-based approach.

Atherosclerotic narrowing of the lower limb arteries: how it causes claudication, rest pain and gangrene, how the ABI and duplex find it, and how to treat it.

Care after a heart attack: complications to watch for, secondary prevention, cardiac rehabilitation, and return to work, driving and daily life.

Raynaud phenomenon and vasculitis of the limbs: primary and secondary Raynaud, scleroderma link, thromboangiitis obliterans, and treatment.

Stiff ventricles that cannot relax: how restricted filling causes heart failure, from amyloid to fibrosis, and how to tell it from constrictive pericarditis.

Secondary hypertension: how to spot the identifiable causes of high blood pressure, test for them, and treat each one.

How coronary occlusion causes STEMI: ECG criteria and territories, reperfusion by PCI or fibrinolysis, antithrombotic drugs and post-infarct care.

Supraventricular tachycardias: sinus, atrial, AVNRT and AVRT types, the ECG approach, vagal manoeuvres, adenosine, cardioversion, ablation and special groups.

Syncope is brief, self-limited loss of consciousness from cerebral hypoperfusion. Classify the cause, spot red flags, and choose tests and treatment.

How acute coronary syndromes present as unstable angina or NSTEMI: definition, pathophysiology, diagnosis, troponin pathways, risk scores, and management.

The main valve lesions: presentation, echo severity grading and timing of intervention, plus pregnancy, endocarditis prophylaxis and rheumatic fever prevention.

Rest angina from transient coronary spasm: triggers, ECG changes, diagnosis, treatment, and arrhythmia risk.

PVCs, ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation and torsades de pointes: ECG recognition, cardiac arrest, drugs, ICDs and ablation.

Ventricular pre-excitation through an accessory pathway: delta wave, AVRT, pre-excited AF and sudden death risk, why AV-nodal drugs harm, and ablation.

Chronic GH excess: causes, presentation, diagnosis with IGF-1 and GH suppression, surgery, medicines, radiation and screening.

How to work up an adrenal mass found by chance: imaging, hormones, and when to operate.

How the adrenal glands fail, how the patient looks, how to test, and how to treat adrenal crisis and lifelong replacement safely.

Every glucose-lowering drug class: mechanism, HbA1c, weight and hypo risk, plus insulin regimens, comorbidity-based selection and low-resource care.

How long-standing high blood glucose damages the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, vessels and feet, and how to screen for and reduce that risk.

Autosomal recessive enzyme defects that block cortisol synthesis, leading to androgen excess and, in severe forms, salt-wasting crises.

Excess cortisol from any cause: how it produces the Cushingoid phenotype, how to screen and find the source, and how to treat it.

AVP deficiency or resistance: how central and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus cause polyuria and hypernatraemia, how to diagnose them, and how to treat them.

Monitoring glucose and delivering insulin: HbA1c, blood glucose meters, CGM metrics and time in range, insulin pumps and automated insulin delivery.

Acute hyperglycaemic emergencies: definitions, diagnostic criteria, precipitants, pathophysiology, treatment, monitoring and prevention.

How systemic glucocorticoids work, how their doses are equated, and how to taper, stress-dose and monitor them safely.

Overactive parathyroid glands: causes, stones and bones, tests that separate it from mimics, and treatment from parathyroid surgery to dialysis care.

Hyperprolactinaemia and prolactinoma: causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, from dopamine biology to dopamine agonists, surgery, and pregnancy.

Thyroid hormone excess: how it differs from thyrotoxicosis, its causes, presentation, tests, treatment, storm and pregnancy.

How low glucose presents, what causes it with and without diabetes, how fasting hypoglycaemia is evaluated, and how insulinoma is diagnosed and treated.

How low sex-steroid output delays puberty, how to separate testicular from pituitary failure, and how testosterone and oestrogen are used

Partial or complete failure of the pituitary gland to secrete one or more hormones: causes, diagnosis and replacement.

Deficient thyroid hormone: its causes, how it presents, how we diagnose it, how we treat it, and myxoedema coma.

Metabolic syndrome: central adiposity, insulin resistance, dysglycaemia, dyslipidaemia and hypertension; criteria, causes, risks and care.

MEN1 (menin), MEN2A and 2B (RET) and MEN4 (CDKN1B): tumour spectra, inheritance, genetic testing, surveillance, RET-risk thyroidectomy and management.

Neuroendocrine tumours (NETs): classification, carcinoid syndrome, diagnosis, imaging, and somatostatin analogue therapy.

Definitions, staged assessment, lifestyle, pharmacotherapy including GLP-1 medicines, bariatric surgery, complications, special groups and low-resource care.

Osteoporosis: low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration that lead to fragility fractures; risk factors, screening, diagnosis, and treatment.

Paget disease of bone: focal disordered bone remodelling, phases, complications, diagnosis with alkaline phosphatase and imaging, and bisphosphonate treatment.

Catecholamine-secreting tumours of the adrenal medulla and paraganglia: genetics, diagnosis, preoperative blockade, surgery and lifelong follow-up.

Incidentally found pituitary lesions and the bleed or infarct called pituitary apoplexy: definition, imaging, hormone work-up, visual fields, emergency.

Mass effect, visual fields, hypopituitarism, non-functioning pituitary adenoma surgery, craniopharyngioma, Rathke cyst and meningioma.

How excess aldosterone causes hypertension: causes, who to screen, aldosterone-to-renin ratio, confirmatory tests, subtype imaging and treatment.

Why SIADH retains water, its many causes, how it is diagnosed, how severity guides treatment, and how to avoid osmotic demyelination.

Thyroid disease in pregnancy: trimester TSH ranges, drug choices, postpartum thyroiditis, and treatment of Graves orbitopathy.

How thyroid testing works: the HPT axis, interpreting TSH, free T4 and free T3, antibodies, imaging, drugs and practice in low-resource settings.

Thyroid nodules and cancer: risk, ultrasound and TI-RADS, TSH and scans, FNA and Bethesda, the main cancer types, treatment and follow-up.

Thyroiditis: inflammation of the thyroid gland in its several forms, with transient thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, tests and treatment.

Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells: how type 1 diabetes shows, how it is diagnosed and staged, and how to manage and monitor it.

A chronic metabolic disease of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency: definition, diagnosis, targets and stepwise management.

Vitamin D deficiency: how it causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, how to recognise, test and treat.

Groin and abdominal-wall hernias: types, anatomy of the inguinal and femoral canals, risk factors, examination, complications and evidence-based treatment.

How to read liver blood tests: injury versus cholestasis versus synthetic failure, jaundice patterns, and stepwise algorithms for investigation.

Achalasia and other oesophageal motility disorders: symptoms, manometry, classification and treatment from dilation to POEM.

A common surgical emergency: how obstruction of the appendix leads to pain, perforation and abscess, and how it is diagnosed and treated.

How gallstone obstruction inflames the gallbladder, how we recognise, grade and image it, and how we treat it safely.

Acute liver failure: causes, critical care, King's College criteria, and when emergency liver transplantation saves life.

Sudden loss of intestinal blood flow: causes, presentation, CT angiography, and time-critical revascularisation and bowel resection.

Acute pancreatitis: causes from gallstones to alcohol and drugs, Revised Atlanta diagnosis and severity, fluids, feeding, ERCP, and complications.

Whole spectrum from steatosis to cirrhosis, with diagnosis, severity scores, steroid treatment and withdrawal care for alcoholic hepatitis.

How HPV-driven anal squamous cell cancer develops, who is at risk, how it is staged and treated with chemoradiotherapy, and how precancerous lesions are.

How appendiceal neuroendocrine, mucinous and glandular tumours present, how they are staged, and when right hemicolectomy, cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC.

How to assess diarrhoea: mechanisms, acute and chronic causes, dehydration, stool tests, treatment and red flags.

Autoimmune hepatitis: who it affects, how it is diagnosed, and how immunosuppression controls it long term.

Gut neuroendocrine tumours: grading, why carcinoid syndrome needs liver metastases, flushing, diarrhoea, heart valves, diagnosis and modern treatment.

Choledocholithiasis, acute cholangitis and gallstone ileus: presentation, diagnosis, risk stratification, antibiotics, ERCP and urgent biliary drainage.

Gallstones: types, risks, biliary colic, complications, ultrasound diagnosis, treatment, and low-resource guidance.

Progressive irreversible inflammation and fibrosis of the pancreas causing pain, exocrine insufficiency and diabetes; causes, diagnosis, and treatment.

Bridging fibrosis and regenerative nodules: causes, portal hypertension, clinical signs, tests, scores, management and prognosis of cirrhosis.

How Clostridioides difficile injures the colon, how it is found, and how current guidelines treat, prevent and guard against recurrence.

Immune-mediated small-bowel disease triggered by gluten in HLA-DQ2 or DQ8 carriers, from definition to diagnosis, diet and complications.

Colorectal cancer from polyp to metastasis: epidemiology, risk factors, site-specific presentation, staging, surgery, chemotherapy and screening.

Benign mucosal growths and the hereditary syndromes behind them; how they become cancer, how colonoscopy removes them, and when to look again.

How cirrhosis affects the brain, kidneys, veins and clotting, and how to recognise and manage each complication.

Causes, warning signs, anorectal physiology, assessment and a practical management ladder for constipation and faecal incontinence in adults.

Transmural IBD from mouth to anus: episodic pain, diarrhoea, strictures and fistulas, and stepwise then advanced therapy.

Diverticulosis and its complications - bleeding, diverticulitis and SCAD - from pathogenesis to management.

Causes, patterns, diagnosis, causality and treatment of drug-induced liver injury, with the paracetamol nomogram and acetylcysteine.

A practical approach to difficulty swallowing and pain on swallowing: telling oropharyngeal from oesophageal causes, red flags, first tests and treatment.

How eosinophilic inflammation causes dysphagia and food impaction, how biopsy finds EoE, and how PPIs, topical steroids, diet and dupilumab treat it.

Functional dyspepsia and gastroparesis: how they overlap, how to tell them apart, and how to manage them.

How biliary tract cancers arise, how they are classified, how gallbladder cancer and cholangiocarcinoma are found, and how they are treated.

A common upper GI malignancy with marked geographic variation: how it develops, presents, is staged, and is treated today.

Classification, diagnosis and treatment of H. pylori and non-H. pylori gastritis, with stress ulcer prophylaxis and gastric cancer prevention.

What GERD and Barrett oesophagus are, how they present and are diagnosed, and how they are managed from lifestyle measures and PPIs to surgery.

How to recognise, assess, investigate and treat bleeding anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract, from first approach to prevention.

Iron overload disorders: HFE and non-HFE haemochromatosis, secondary iron overload, symptoms, tests, phlebotomy and complications.

Simple cysts, haemangioma, focal nodular hyperplasia and hepatic adenoma: diagnosis, imaging and management, with cross-check against hepatocellular carcinoma.

Chronic hepatitis B and D: virology, serology, natural history, treatment with tenofovir or entecavir, prevention, and severe HDV co-infection.

What hepatitis C is: transmission, natural history, screening, diagnosis, curative direct-acting antiviral therapy, follow-up and prevention.

Acute and chronic hepatitis: causes, phases, the five hepatotropic viruses, acute liver failure recognition and ICU care, and hepatitis A and E management.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: risks, surveillance, diagnosis, staging with BCLC, treatment, and how other liver masses differ.

A hernia of stomach through the diaphragmatic hiatus: types, symptoms, Cameron anaemia, imaging, surgery for paraesophageal hernia, and emergencies.

Ileus and Ogilvie syndrome: causes, diagnosis and stepwise management from conservative care to neostigmine, decompression and surgery.

Infectious diarrhoea and foodborne illness: causes, clinical clues, testing and management.

How Candida, herpes simplex and cytomegalovirus inflame the oesophagus, how they are diagnosed, treated and prevented.

Aminosalicylates, corticosteroids, immunomodulators and biologics in IBD; how to escalate therapy and how to run colonoscopic cancer surveillance.

A common gut-brain axis disorder: symptom-based diagnosis, subtype classification, and step-by-step, safe management.

Sudden colonic ischemia, usually segmental and left-sided: how it presents, how we confirm and stage it, and when surgery is needed.

Inherited disorders with isolated bilirubin rises: bilirubin metabolism, Gilbert, Crigler-Najjar, Dubin-Johnson and Rotor syndromes, neonatal jaundice.

How large bowel obstruction and volvulus present, are diagnosed on imaging, and are managed from resuscitation to stenting, diversion and resection.

Pyogenic and amoebic liver abscess and hydatid cyst: how they form, how to diagnose, and how to treat them.

Malabsorption and maldigestion: from physiology to classified causes, symptoms, investigations and management, with a full section on lactose intolerance.

Superficial retching-induced tears at the cardia versus full-thickness oesophageal rupture: how to tell them apart and treat both.

What MASLD is, how it progresses to cirrhosis and cancer, how to assess fibrosis, and how to manage it in adults.

Chronic watery diarrhoea in older adults (microscopic colitis, budesonide) and intestinal failure after major small-bowel resection (short bowel syndrome).

What oesophageal cancer is, how it presents and is diagnosed and staged, and how it is treated by stage in high- and low-resource settings.

Oesophageal pouches: Zenker's, mid-oesophageal traction and epiphrenic diverticula, with causes, symptoms, barium diagnosis and treatment.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: epidemiology, risk factors, presentation, diagnosis, staging, treatment, screening and prognosis.

What functioning pancreatic NETs are, how insulinoma and VIPoma present, how they are diagnosed, and how each is treated.

Peptic ulcer disease: causes, symptoms, endoscopic diagnosis, eradication of H. pylori, and management of bleeding, perforation and obstruction.

How secondary peritonitis develops from a perforated or necrotic hollow viscus, how it is recognised, imaged, resuscitated, and when surgical source control.

Acquired disease of hair follicles in the natal cleft, from acute abscess to chronic sinus: differential diagnosis, modern treatment and low-resource care.

Portal hypertension and its consequences, cirrhotic ascites and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: causes, SAAG-based diagnosis, grading and stepwise management

Autoimmune destruction of small intrahepatic bile ducts; raised ALP and AMA in middle-aged women, with UDCA first-line therapy.

Chronic cholestatic disease: inflammation and fibrosis of intra- and extrahepatic bile ducts, IBD link, beaded MRCP, no proven drug, transplant definitive.

Mechanical blockage of the small intestine: causes, pathophysiology, diagnosis by CT and water-soluble contrast, and when to operate or observe.

Small bowel tumours—adenocarcinoma, lymphoma, neuroendocrine tumours, metastases—and GIST: presentation, work-up and treatment.

Inflammatory bowel disease: how ulcerative colitis presents, is diagnosed, scored, treated, and followed; Crohn disease compared on the features that matter.

Rare autosomal recessive copper overload of liver, brain, cornea and kidney: copper studies, Leipzig score, lifelong chelator or zinc treatment.

A gastrin-secreting tumour of the duodenum or pancreas causing acid hypersecretion, refractory ulcers and diarrhoea, often tied to MEN1.

Acute lymphoblastic and myeloid leukaemia: classification, presentation, diagnosis, risk stratification, treatment and emergencies for students.

How inflammation traps iron and blunts erythropoietin in anaemia of chronic disease, and how renal anaemia is defined, investigated and treated.

How anaemia is defined and sorted by red cell size, how iron is absorbed and stored, why deficiency develops, and how to treat it.

Every anticoagulant and antithrombotic drug class: mechanism, monitoring, reversal, indications, perioperative care, bleeding management and low-resource use.

Bone marrow failure causing pancytopenia: causes, diagnosis, severity and treatment, including stem cell transplant and immunosuppression.

Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia: warm IgG versus cold IgM, DAT patterns, blood film, treatment, Evans syndrome, low-resource care.

How blood transfusion works, when to give each component, the reactions it can trigger, and how to recognise and manage them at the bedside.

Precancer lesions and the cancers they feed, plus carcinogenesis, paraneoplastic syndromes, tumour markers, screening principles and low-resource notes.

How cytotoxic chemotherapy drug classes work, why they damage fast-growing normal tissues, and the organ toxicities to watch for with each class.

CLL: epidemiology, diagnosis, staging, prognosis and modern treatment from watchful waiting to targeted therapy.

Chronic myeloid leukaemia (BCR-ABL1, TKIs) and hairy cell leukaemia (BRAF V600E, purine analogues): diagnosis and treatment.

Systemic coagulation activation that consumes platelets and factors, causing microvascular clots and bleeding: causes, tests, ISTH score and treatment.

What an elevated blood eosinophil count means, why it occurs, how to investigate it, and how it is treated.

ET and myelofibrosis: driver mutations JAK2, CALR and MPL, thrombotic risk scores, WHO/ICC and ELN-based management, and myelofibrosis treatment.

Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: autologous and allogeneic, donor selection, conditioning, complications and aftercare.

How red cells are destroyed, how to recognise haemolysis, and the causes, tests and treatments for spherocytosis, G6PD deficiency and PNH.

X-linked deficiency of factor VIII or IX causing recurrent bleeding into joints and muscles: diagnosis, factor replacement, inhibitors, and prophylaxis.

Classical Hodgkin lymphoma: pathology, presentation, staging, PET-adapted treatment, prognosis, late effects, and low-resource care.

Inherited and acquired hypercoagulable states: thrombophilia testing, anticoagulant treatment, warfarin skin necrosis, and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.

Hyperviscosity syndrome and cryoglobulinaemia: causes, clinical features and plasmapheresis management.

Autoimmune thrombocytopenia: low platelet counts from antibody-driven destruction and reduced production; diagnosis, causes and management.

How checkpoint inhibitors release anti-tumour immunity, how targeted drugs block oncogenic signalling, their doses, toxicities and the care that makes them.

Two oxygen-carrying failures: oxidised haemoglobin that cannot carry oxygen, and carbon monoxide competing for the same haem.

Multiple myeloma: clonal plasma cell disease, CRAB and SLiM criteria, diagnosis, staging, treatment and low-resource care.

Clonal marrow disease causing cytopenias and dysplasia: classification, risk scores, treatment, progression to leukaemia.

What neutropenia is, why it happens, how to grade and investigate it, and how febrile neutropenia and clozapine monitoring are managed.

A heterogeneous group of lymphoid cancers: classification, painless lymphadenopathy, staging with PET-CT, and modern chemoimmunotherapy.

How blood stops bleeding: vessel spasm, platelet plug, coagulation cascade, natural anticoagulants, fibrinolysis, and the tests used.

Recognition and first management of five life-threatening cancer complications: tumour lysis, vena cava obstruction, cord compression, hypercalcaemia and.

How palliative care relieves cancer pain and other distress: the WHO analgesic ladder, opioid dosing and safety, symptom control at end of life.

Remote effects of cancer across endocrine, neurological, skin and blood systems, and workup of a metastasis with an unknown primary.

Polycythaemia and myeloproliferative neoplasms: relative vs absolute erythrocytosis, PV with JAK2, secondary causes, WHO 2022 criteria, treatment.

Rare heme-synthesis disorders: AIP with neurovisceral attacks, PCT with blistering photosensitivity, their triggers, diagnosis, and modern treatment.

How cancers are staged (TNM and performance status), how screening programmes are judged, and how tumour markers are used and not used.

How ionizing radiation treats cancer: intent, planning, fractionation, acute and late effects, indications, and what to expect after treatment.

What HbS is, how vaso-occlusion happens, how to recognise each complication, and how to manage it with current guideline-based care.

How ringed sideroblasts and megaloblasts arise, how to separate B12 and folate deficiency, and how to treat them.

What thalassaemia is, how alpha and beta types differ, and how diagnosis, screening and long-term care work.

Solid-organ rejection and graft-versus-host disease: how the immune system attacks a transplant, and how we prevent and treat it.

A thrombotic microangiopathy: TTP (ADAMTS13 deficiency) and HUS. Presentation, PLASMIC score, ADAMTS13, plasma exchange, caplacizumab, rituximab, eculizumab.

How active cancer raises VTE risk, how that risk is scored, prevention in hospital and after cancer surgery, and anticoagulant treatment choices.

Common inherited bleeding disorder: how low or abnormal von Willebrand factor causes mucocutaneous bleeding, how it is diagnosed, and how it is treated.

Waldenstrom macroglobulinaemia and amyloidosis: how IgM paraproteins cause hyperviscosity, and how amyloid is found, typed and treated.

Acute pharyngitis: why most sore throats are viral, how to spot and test for group A strep, antibiotic choice and duration, complications and red flags.

Viral and bacterial acute sinusitis: how to tell them apart, diagnose by symptoms, treat, and avoid complications.

Amoebiasis, giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis: diagnosis and treatment of the main intestinal protozoal infections.

Bacillus anthracis infection in all its forms: cutaneous, inhalational, gastrointestinal, and injection disease, with diagnosis, CDC-guided treatment and.

How bacteria resist antibiotics (MRSA, ESBL, CRE), how infection control limits spread, and how stewardship guides drug choice.

Every form of aspergillosis, for everyone who breathes in Aspergillus spores: infection in the neutropenic, allergy in asthmatics, fungus balls in old.

Babesiosis and Rocky Mountain spotted fever: tick-borne Babesia haemolytic anaemia and Rickettsia vasculitis, with diagnosis and treatment.

Bacterial and viral meningitis: causes, red flags, CSF findings, empiric antibiotics, dexamethasone, chemoprophylaxis and vaccination.

Botulinum neurotoxin causes descending flaccid paralysis: recognition, emergency management, and public-health steps.

A focal pus collection in the brain: sources, bugs, ring-enhancing imaging, why lumbar puncture is dangerous, and how to treat it.

How cellulitis, cutaneous abscess, erysipelas and necrotising soft tissue infection are recognised and treated, including MRSA, drainage and surgical source.

Chlamydia and other urethritis and cervicitis: microbiology, serovars, presentation, complications, diagnosis, treatment, neonatal infection, and.

Acute watery diarrhoea caused by Vibrio cholerae: how rice-water stool dehydrates, and the rehydration, antibiotics, vaccines and outbreak control that save.

Community- and hospital-acquired pneumonia: pathogens, presentation, severity scores, imaging, treatment with doses, complications and prevention.

COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2 infection) and other common respiratory viruses: presentation, testing, treatment, vaccines and prevention.

Cryptococcal meningitis: subacute fungal meningoencephalitis in advanced HIV, its diagnosis, and treatment with amphotericin, flucytosine and fluconazole.

CMV infection: latency, transmission, congenital CMV, mononucleosis-like illness, disease in the immunocompromised, diagnosis, treatment and low-resource care.

Acute dacryocystitis plus bacterial, herpetic, fungal and Acanthamoeba keratitis: recognition, urgent referral, and treatment.

Diphtheria toxin from toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae forms a pseudomembrane and attacks heart, nerves and kidneys; antitoxin, antibiotics and.

Encephalitis: causes, presentations, CSF and imaging, aciclovir dosing, autoimmune treatment, prognosis and low-resource care.

Three dimorphic fungi acquired from soil: how they differ in geography, tissue form, presentation, diagnosis and treatment.

How to define, investigate and manage prolonged unexplained fever in adults, from the classic definition through modern stepwise evaluation.

How to sort painful from painless genital ulcers and warts, stage the work-up, and treat first-line, including herpes in pregnancy and HPV vaccination.

Purulent urethritis, cervicitis, pharyngeal and rectal infection, DGI and neonatal conjunctivitis from Neisseria gonorrhoeae; current diagnosis and treatment.

HIV and AIDS: virology, transmission, stages, diagnosis, antiretroviral therapy, opportunistic infections, and prevention.

PrEP and PEP for HIV: regimens, monitoring and dosing, testing strategy, U=U, occupational and sexual exposure, and regional differences.

Routine immunisation across the life course plus pre-travel advice, malaria prophylaxis, and the fever cross-check.

How hospitals prevent and control infection: standard and transmission-based precautions, hand hygiene, isolation, sharps safety, HAI bundles and.

How to recognise, treat and prevent viral, bacterial, gonococcal, chlamydial and allergic conjunctivitis, and orbital cellulitis.

How EBV causes mono: symptoms, tests, complications, treatment, sports safety, and low-resource care.

How valve infection starts, spreads and scars; how blood cultures and echo confirm it, and how antibiotics and surgery treat and prevent it.

What influenza is, how it presents, its complications, how tests and antivirals help, and how it is prevented.

Intestinal helminths (roundworm, hookworm, whipworm), Strongyloides hyperinfection and schistosomiasis: presentation, diagnosis, treatment with albendazole.

How the three major protozoal tropical infections present, how to diagnose them and how to treat and screen for them worldwide.

Leprosy (Hansen disease): a chronic infection of skin and nerves, classified from tuberculoid to lepromatous, treated with multidrug therapy.

Four zoonotic bacterial fevers compared: exposure, presentation, diagnosis, treatment and notification (CDC, WHO).

Lyme disease, a tick-borne Borrelia infection: stages, rash-based diagnosis, two-tier serology, and antibiotic treatment.

Three mosquito- and biting-insect-transmitted filarial worm infections: lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis), onchocerciasis (river blindness) and loiasis.

Malaria caused by Plasmodium parasites: transmission, species, clinical features, severe disease, diagnosis, treatment and prevention.

Measles, mumps and rubella: recognition, complications, outbreak control, vaccination and congenital rubella.

Aedes-borne viruses compared by vector, region, features, diagnosis and care, with prevention and low-resource notes.

Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC): disseminated disease in advanced HIV, pulmonary disease in older women and chronic lung disease, with diagnosis.

Neutropenic fever explained: definition, likely organisms, emergency antibiotics, MASCC risk stratification, duration and prophylaxis.

Dental abscess and periodontal infections, Vincent angina, oral herpes, Ludwig angina, acute lymphadenitis, scrofula, cat-scratch disease and parotitis.

Oral thrush and Candida oesophagitis: who is at risk, how they present, how they are diagnosed and treated, with outlines of invasive and vulvovaginal.

Osteomyelitis: how bone infection starts, how to confirm it, and how to treat acute, vertebral and diabetic foot disease.

Acute, chronic and necrotising otitis externa: causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and warning signs.

Fungal pneumonia of immunocompromised people: subacute dry cough, exertional hypoxia and ground-glass opacities; diagnosed by PCR on BAL; treated with.

How poliovirus causes paralysis, how acute flaccid paralysis is investigated, the vaccines that prevent polio, and the global eradication programme.

Rabies after animal bites: risk assessment, wound washing, PEP with vaccine and immunoglobulin, and bite infections such as Pasteurella and Capnocytophaga.

Scabies and lice: how to recognise them, how to diagnose them, how to treat them with permethrin and ivermectin, and how to control outbreaks in.

What sepsis and septic shock are, how they harm organs, and how to recognise and treat them in the first hour.

Septic arthritis of native and prosthetic joints: synovial fluid diagnosis, surgical drainage, and antibiotic treatment.

A systemic infection with Treponema pallidum that mimics many diseases; how it is staged, diagnosed with serology, and cured with penicillin.

Taenia solium, taeniasis, neurocysticercosis and cystic hydatid disease: how they present, how imaging diagnoses them, and how antiparasitic, surgical and.

Tetanus: how Clostridium tetani toxin causes spastic paralysis, how it is recognised, treated, prevented and vaccinated against.

A practical approach to fever in someone recently returned from abroad: triage, malaria first, geography and incubation, and the key tropical infections.

Toxic shock syndrome from S. aureus and S. pyogenes: toxin-mediated shock, scarlet fever, diagnosis, and treatment.

Toxoplasma gondii infection: usually silent, dangerous in pregnancy and the immunosuppressed; cerebral, ocular and congenital disease.

Trachoma and other neglected tropical diseases: SAFE strategy, yaws, Buruli ulcer, dracunculiasis, snakebite envenoming and the WHO NTD roadmap.

Airborne infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis: why most infections stay latent, how active disease presents in lung and elsewhere, how it is diagnosed.

Systemic enteric fever from Salmonella Typhi and Paratyphi: presentation, complications, diagnosis, resistance-guided treatment, vaccines, and carriers.

Organisms and antimicrobial drugs in urinary tract infection and pyelonephritis: uropathogens, urine tests, treatment by group and setting, complications.

Primary varicella (chickenpox) and reactivation herpes zoster (shingles): epidemiology, features, complications, antivirals, vaccines, pregnancy and.

Viral haemorrhagic fevers: Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, CCHF, yellow fever, hantavirus and Rift Valley fever, with isolation, supportive care and antivirals.

Noncardiogenic acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure: definitions, Berlin and 2023 global criteria, imaging, ventilation and outcomes.

Genetics, emphysema and liver disease in alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency; testing in early COPD and augmentation therapy.

Obtain and interpret arterial blood gases: sampling safely, normal values, oxygenation and the A-a gradient, and respiratory versus metabolic disorders.

A chronic inflammatory airway disease causing wheeze and breathlessness, with reversible obstruction; modern stepwise management and acute care.

Permanent dilatation of the bronchi: causes, the cycle of inflammation and infection, diagnosis, management, complications, and low-resource care.

Causes, work-up and treatment of chronic cough and haemoptysis in adults, including red flags and life-threatening (massive) haemoptysis.

Chronic lung disease with persistent airflow obstruction: clinical features, diagnosis, staging, management and complications.

Classification, diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary eosinophilia including ABPA, EGPA, eosinophilic pneumonia, and parasite- or drug-induced disease.

Immune-mediated lung disease from inhaled antigens: farmer's, bird fancier's, humidifier and hot-tub lung; non-fibrotic and fibrotic forms.

How hypoxaemia develops, how to read the blood gas and A-a gradient, and how to give oxygen and ventilatory support safely.

A restrictive interstitial lung disease: how idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and other causes are classified, diagnosed, and managed.

Lung cancer from first suspicion to treatment by stage: risks, types, presentation, staging, molecular tests, and care in low-resource settings.

Lung transplantation for end-stage lung disease: indications, referral timing, surgery, complications, and palliative care.

Mediastinal masses by compartment, with thymoma: definition, imaging, biopsy, surgery, staging and management from ESMO, WHO and ITMIG.

Malignant pleural mesothelioma and other pleural tumours: asbestos risk, effusion presentation, thoracoscopic diagnosis, histology, staging and treatment.

How airway collapse in sleep causes apnoea, how AHI severity is graded, how to diagnose and treat OSA, and how obesity hypoventilation differs.

Oxygen prescribing, high-flow nasal cannula, CPAP, BiPAP, intubation indications, ventilator settings and weaning in adult respiratory failure.

How fluid accumulates in the pleural space, how transudates differ from exudates, and how to investigate, drain and treat effusions by cause.

How bacteria infect the pleural space and how aspiration abscesses form in the lung: stages, diagnosis, drainage, antibiotics, surgery, and outcomes.

Inhaled workplace dusts that scar the lungs: what silicosis, coal disease, asbestosis, beryllium disease, and byssinosis are, and how they differ.

Air in the pleural space: types, how it presents, how imaging diagnoses it, and how current guidelines manage spontaneous, traumatic and tension cases.

Acute pulmonary embolism: risk factors, pathophysiology, diagnosis, risk stratification, treatment with doses, and complications.

How lung volumes, airflow, gas transfer and blood gases are measured and what their patterns mean.

How high pulmonary pressures arise, are classified, diagnosed and treated, and what they mean for the right heart and cor pulmonale.

Pulmonary capillaritis and diffuse alveolar haemorrhage: GPA, anti-GBM disease and lupus, with causes, investigation, diagnosis and management.

A multisystem granulomatous disease: how noncaseating granulomas form, how sarcoidosis presents by organ, and how it is diagnosed and treated.

How to help a smoker quit, with brief advice, nicotine replacement, varenicline, bupropion, pulmonary rehabilitation and vaccination in chronic lung disease.

A rounded opacity up to 3 cm surrounded by aerated lung: how to tell benign from malignant and what to do next.

Upper airway obstruction and aspiration: recognition and management of stridor, foreign body, epiglottitis, vocal cord dysfunction, and aspiration.

Stepwise acid-base interpretation: pH, primary process, compensation, anion gap, osmolar gap, renal tubular acidosis and mixed disorders.

Acute inflammation of kidney tubules and interstitium, usually drug-related: causes, urine sediment, steroids, and analgesic nephropathy.

Rapid loss of kidney function: KDIGO definition and staging, causes, urinary indices, assessment, complications, and management.

Sudden inability to void: causes, catheterisation, post-obstructive diuresis and urethral stricture.

Benign, non-cancerous growth in the transition zone of the prostate that blocks urine flow; symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and when surgery is needed.

Benign kidney tumours, cysts and imaging categories, plus upper tract urothelial carcinoma from presentation through nephroureterectomy and adjuvant therapy.

Bladder cancer: painless visible haematuria, cystoscopy and TURBT, with stage-based care from intravesical BCG to cystectomy and immunotherapy.

Chronic kidney disease: staging by eGFR and albuminuria, causes, complications, progression, and treatment.

Contrast-associated and drug- or pigment-induced acute tubular injury: mechanisms, risk stratification, prevention and management.

Polyuria from central and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: causes, water-deprivation testing, and management, with cross-checks to endocrinology and.

Dialysis and kidney transplantation: indications, modalities, access, complications, transplant eligibility, immunosuppression and rejection.

Classes of diuretics, their sites and mechanisms in the nephron, indications, dosing, adverse effects, resistance and how to choose.

Why erections fail, how to find the cause and how to treat it: physiology, risk factors, tests, drug and device therapy, surgery and low-resource care.

Adult fluid and electrolyte therapy: assessing volume status, resuscitation and maintenance IV fluids, crystalloid choice, correcting common disorders.

Renal, ureteric, bladder, urethral and penile injuries and ischaemic priapism: how they present, how to assess them, and the first steps in management.

A thrombotic microangiopathy pattern: STEC-associated and complement-mediated atypical HUS, TTP contrast, diagnosis, and treatment.

Obstruction anywhere from kidney tubules to urethra: why it swells the kidney, symptoms, tests by level, how to relieve it, and when it is an emergency.

What makes blood calcium rise, how it harms kidneys, bones and brain, and how to bring it down safely.

Elevated serum potassium: why it matters, how it changes the ECG, and how to stabilise and remove it.

How a serum sodium above 145 mmol/L means a water deficit, how to find why it happened, and how to correct it without causing cerebral oedema.

Low blood calcium: causes, clinical features, ECG changes, diagnosis and treatment, including low-resource settings.

Low serum potassium: causes, assessment with urine potassium and acid-base status, ECG changes, and safe replacement.

Low and high serum magnesium: causes, effects, refractory hypokalaemia and hypocalcaemia, and treatment.

Low serum sodium: how to find the cause, judge severity, and correct it safely.

Low and high serum phosphate, hypophosphataemia and CKD-mineral and bone disorder: causes, effects, vitamin D, PTH and phosphate binders.

Causes, evaluation and treatment of male infertility, varicocele and hypogonadism, with semen analysis standards and testosterone thresholds.

Blood and protein in the urine with pressure and swelling: what nephritic syndrome is, its glomerular causes, and how it is investigated and treated.

How kidney stones form, present and are treated: types, diagnosis, pain relief, drainage, surgery, and prevention.

Heavy proteinuria, low albumin, swelling and high lipids: what nephrotic syndrome is, why each feature happens, its causes, and how it is treated.

Penile and urethral cancer: risk factors, HPV and phimosis, premalignant lesions, staging, organ-sparing surgery, nodal and systemic management.

Autosomal dominant and recessive polycystic kidney disease: cyst growth, complications, diagnosis, blood pressure control, tolvaptan, and low-resource care.

How prostate cancer is detected, staged and treated, from PSA and MRI to active surveillance, surgery, radiotherapy, hormones and advanced disease.

Acute and chronic bacterial prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome: definitions, diagnosis, treatment and relation to UTI.

Clear cell and other renal cell cancers, from risk and pathology to staging, surgery and systemic therapy, plus a practical approach to haematuria.

Renal artery stenosis from atherosclerotic and fibromuscular disease: how it causes hypertension, flash pulmonary oedema and ACE inhibitor acute kidney.

Approach to scrotal swelling, testicular torsion and epididymitis: causes, red flags, examination, tests, treatment and low-resource care.

Testicular cancer in young men: types, tumour markers, staging, orchidectomy, chemotherapy and cure.

Stress, urgency, overflow, functional and mixed urinary incontinence, with evaluation, treatment and bladder pain syndrome.

Definitions, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections: cystitis, pyelonephritis, asymptomatic bacteriuria and complicated and recurrent forms.